Silent Sacrifices: The Plight of Migrant Women in Latin America’s Most Dangerous Routes
By Jocelyn Livier

Overview

            In just over 10 years, Latin America’s international migrant population has doubled, growing from 8 million to more than 16 million in 2022.[1] This makes Latin America the fastest-growing migrant region.[2]  It is also the region with the highest reported rates of gender-based violence (GBV).[3] Brazil, Peru, Mexico, Argentina, El Salvador, and Bolivia together represent 81% of GBV cases worldwide. [4] These two data points make clear the vulnerabilities that many female migrants face. The region, home to the top 5 countries with the highest rates of femicide,[5] has a historical legacy of patriarchy, which has exacerbated gender disparities. Additionally, political instability and economic challenges in several Latin American nations have fueled the desperate pursuit of better opportunities, driving countless individuals to northward migration routes. [6] Venezuela is often cited as one of the largest migrant crises in the world, with nearly 8 million displaced individuals.[7] Most of these individuals become upward-traveling migrants. [8] While these routes pose harm to all travelers, it is essential to recognize the gendered nature of this migration phenomenon and the greater relative difficulty for women, as they are often subject to gender-based violence along the way. In Latin America, GBV not only is among the leading reasons for women to migrate; it also affects them throughout the migration journey.

            GBV is harm directed at individuals or groups based on their gender, encompassing physical, sexual, or psychological injuries, as well as threats, coercion, and other infringements on freedom and autonomy.[9] The roots of GBV lie in societal power structures and sociocultural ideologies, perpetuated by gender inequalities, normative gender roles, and abuses of power.[10]

The term "migrant in transit" is commonly understood as a status-based concept, including both irregular and regular migration.[11] The state of being "in transit" introduces added challenges, as individuals are mobile and lack consistent access to essential care, necessities, or avenues for reporting instances of violence to authorities.[12]

Women in particular face heightened vulnerabilities as migrants. Two of the most perilous routes, from South and Central America and Mexico to the United States are the Sonora Desert and the Darién Gap. Each presents unique challenges, where the confluence of historical passageways and contemporary factors further intensify the risks. The recent surge in migration through Latin America into the United States, especially of single women with children,[13] underscores the urgency of this issue.

            Gender disparities begin even before the migrant’s journey commences. Latin American women earn, on average, 17% less than men for similar work.[14] They also make up most of the lower-paying sectors, making economic mobility a strong incentive for many women. Once they have decided to migrate, these women are subjected to increased risk when compared to their male counterparts. Studies by the UN Women found that nearly 60-80% of women were raped at some point in their journey from Mexico to the United States.[15] The increased risk translates to young girls as well.

            Unfortunately, Europe remains the only region with comprehensive data regarding unaccompanied children arriving at their borders. They found that 9 out of 10 unaccompanied children were boys, indicating the increased risk girls have when traveling alone.[16] Girls are most likely traveling in groups, due to the added layer of protection. Families are aware of the risk, as only a quarter of family groups crossing the Panama-Columbia border had a girl or woman traveling with them.[17] Women also experience sexual exploitation and violence at higher rates than men or boys. Nightmarishly, some groups may choose to travel with women to exploit and force them to have sex in exchange for resources along the way.[18] The northward migration through Latin American countries to the United States is gendered in nature. Women fleeing GBV travel upwards, yet they also experience GBV along the way.

Longest Land Migration Route - Sonora Desert

            Increased difficulty in accessing major crossing points through Tijuana and other border cities has forced migrants seeking entry into the U.S. to risk crossing the desert.[19] Those unable to afford the 6-month wait for an initial interview with the U.S. Border Patrol or unable to procure the required documents cross illicitly.[20] Dubbed the “Deadliest Border Crossing”, the U.S.-Mexico border spans over 80 miles, often taking over a week to complete.[21] It is almost always the final crossing for migrants traveling from as far as South America (a portion of whom traveled from other continents to get to South America in the first place). While the desert is crossed by people with a plethora of national, ethnic, racial, and religious identities, one group that has seen a significant increase is women.

A US Border Patrol Officer meets a group of women and children who crossed the Sonora border. [Photo: AFP]

 

            During the Trump administration and the COVID-19 pandemic, the U.S. deployed Title 42, a health emergency order.[22] Under the pretense of preventing the spread of COVID-19, Title 42 allowed border officials to turn away any migrant without granting them the right to enter illegally and apply for asylum.[23] Families and children traveling alone were exempt, however, leading to first a higher proportion of women and children allowed in and then more women and children migrating, once the news spread.[24] Single mothers knew they would not be turned away if they traveled with their children. As more women began crossing the desert, illicit industries targeting women also grew. The Sonora Desert has always been a hotspot for human trafficking. Women and girls are targeted for sexual exploitation at much higher rates than men and boys. These cases usually go unreported. If migrants successfully cross the Sonora Desert, they face very little legal support in reporting cases of sexual abuse, trafficking, and exploitation. U.S. law places the burden of proof on migrants to provide evidence of coercion and force.[25] A handful of destination-based organizations such as Arte Sana and the Bilateral Safety Corridor Coalition offer free-of-charge multilingual services to migrants who have experienced such atrocities but there are not enough services to meet demand.

            There are many other factors one might not immediately consider that intensify the risk of migrating for women. The Sonora Desert is not getting any easier to cross. As climate change breaks heat records, scientists estimate that migrants will need to carry more water on their journey, with the need for water already being 34% higher than previously.[26] Pregnant women are expected to need even more. Water is heavy and hard to come by. This makes women more vulnerable to exploitation as the need for necessities such as water increases.

            There is also the need to navigate criminals preying on migrants. It is not uncommon for mothers to have to offer their daughters, if not themselves, up for sexual payment, highlighting the heinous intersection of human trafficking and migration. Survival often hinges on a woman's ability to negotiate with cartel members, at a potential cost to her health and with the risk of pregnancy , risks integral to the discussion of aid and intervention along the migration routes. If a woman is subjected to sexual violence during the migration journey, she not only might become pregnant, but also faces a significantly higher risk of acquiring HIV or other sexually transmitted infections. This can come with severe psychological impacts and long-term effects on both the woman and her child. The Center for Women’s Justice states, “Evidence suggests that mothers may feel ‘reminded’ by the child of the rapist – particularly in cases where the child is male – or of the horrific ordeal they have been through. There is evidence that both mothers and children will often suffer from attachment difficulties and poor mental health, which in turn can profoundly negatively affect a child’s development and educational outcomes, as well as his/her wellbeing in adulthood.”[27]

            And then there is the threat of death. Roughly 8,000 migrants passed away while crossing the Sonora Desert in 2021.[28] The year is now 2023 and those numbers are not slowing down. Women continue to face the brunt of migration when crossing the desert.

 

 

One of the World’s Most Congested Migration Routes - Darién Gap







A Haitian woman carries a child while crossing a river in the Darién  Gap. [File: Fernando Vergara/AP]
 

            The Darién Gap is the only land pathway connecting Central and South America,.[29] It stands out from other migration routes due to its formidable natural barriers, including dense rainforests, impassable swamps, and treacherous terrain, making it one of the most challenging and dangerous paths for migrants. Additionally, it lacks established infrastructure, border controls, or formal routes, rendering it a largely unregulated and perilous passage compared to more organized migration corridors.

            In 2022, the Panamanian government reported an astonishing surge in migration across the Darién Gap, with over 248,000 individuals making the perilous journey towards the United States.[30] This marked a stark contrast from a decade ago, when only a few hundred attempted this route annually. Notably, more than 40,000 of the migrants who crossed in 2021 were children.[31] The diverse array of nationalities represented among the migrants was striking as well, with the majority originating from Venezuela, followed by Ecuador and Haiti, including Haitian children born in Brazil and Chile.[32] Surprisingly, some migrants had embarked on this challenging path from places as distant as Angola, Bangladesh, and Uzbekistan.[33] To date, the pathway hosts migrants of nearly every national descent. Especially as pressure from the United States led to an increase in stringent visa requirements to enter Mexico and Panama, migrants shifted toward less intensively monitored borders, such as Columbia’s, and then began to move upwards through the Darién Gap to get to destination countries such as the U.S., or increasingly, Mexico. It is likely that upwards of 400,000 individuals passed through the Darién Gap in 2023.[34] 28% of the people passing through the Darién Gap are women. [35] As in the Sonora Desert, the journey is especially difficult for them. Women’s bodies often become commodities, as predators demand services and trade. “Migrants and refugees are exposed to multiple human rights violations and abuses during their journey, including sexual violence, which is a particular risk for children, women, LGBTI people, and people with disabilities. A study of the sexual behaviors of migrants in the Darién Gap found that most women crossing it were constantly in fear of experiencing sexual violence.[36] During the four months between May and September 2021, 180 cases of rape within the Gap were reported to Doctors Without Borders.[37] And those were just the reported incidents. There are also murders, disappearances, trafficking, robbery, and intimidation by organized crime groups,” UN Human Rights Office spokesperson Marta Hurtado told the biweekly press briefing in Geneva. [38]

 

            Just as in the Sonora Desert, the harsh conditions in the Darién Gap lead women and girls to employ sex as a survival strategy, often sacrificing themselves to secure funds for the journey, particularly when they have children. Indeed, two reasons women are so readily targeted is that they begin migration with less money than men do, creating a situation conducive to transactional exchanges and 22% of them traveled with children, compared to 9% of men.[39] . One migrant, Jamie, 29, said, “The men offer the money. And since the girl doesn't have money to keep going and they have children, then they sacrifice themselves for the children, […] because they need the money to, to continue the journey.”[40] But there is also straightforward rape. Numerous interviewees recounted instances of organized armed groups and bandits within the Darién Gap selecting women from travel groups for sexual assault during or after robberies. Some women preparing to traverse the Darién are cognizant of the potential for sexual violence, prompting them to plan ahead and obtain emergency contraception before embarking on their journey.[41]

Migrant women face sexual abuse in Darien Gap

A video sharing the stories of Darién Gap’s rape victims, all of which are migrant women. The video is in Spanish with visual English translations. [CGTN America]
 

            Another challenge for mothers is maintaining their children’s health during the arduous journey. Studies found that 77% of infants crossing the jungle experienced infections, disease, or some form of sickness.[42] Coupled with the previous statistic, one can conclude that women crossing the gap not only have to care for themselves but also ill children at significantly higher rates than their male counterparts, indicating more vulnerability as resource requirements for food, water, and medication increase.

            The survival tactic of providing sexual services in exchange for such resources is driven by necessity. It can have lasting repercussions on the relationships women have with family, community members, and their children if they do travel with them. It’s worth noting that the GBV women experience during migration can have long-lasting effects even if they do not become pregnant. In addition to physical effects such as common diseases and genital injuries, there are also negative impacts on their mental health. Many of these women suffer from PTSD, depression, anxiety, and paranoia. Families, community members, and traveling groups can also play a part in the mental health impacts on women by stigmatizing them for their lived experiences of GBV.[43] These risks are acknowledged as young girls usually cross the Darién accompanied.[44] It is rare that families will allow young girls to travel alone given the harsh reality.

 

Conclusion

            The increasing numbers of Latin America's international migrant population reveal not only the region's status as the fastest-growing migrant hub but also shed light on the vulnerabilities faced by women. They are subjected to higher rates of sexual exploitation and GBV. Too little attention is paid to this form of violence: there is not enough effort to prevent it and there are too few services and too little legal recourse available to women and girls who have suffered it. Although the immediate thought may be to grant migrant women additional protections, there are some issues with this to consider. The first is that prioritizing a migrant population can make them a vulnerable target; if migrant women have additional protections, they are more likely to be trafficked, for example. Title 42 led to these kinds of outcomes.

            Resolving the problems migrant women face – those sending them on the road and those they experience underway, require more concerted attention, greater awareness, and the application of more resources. Future policies, migration centers, and aid groups must acknowledge the unique challenges migrating women and girls face.

​

 

References

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[A US Border Patrol Officer meets a group of women and children who crossed the Sonora border.]. (n.d.). AFP. https://www.afp.com/en/products/picture

 

[1] Selee, Andrew, Andrea Tanco, Maria Jesus Mora, Valerie Lacarte, Ariel G. Ruiz Soto, and Diego Chaves-González . “In a Dramatic Shift, the Americas Have Become a Leading Migration Destination.” migrationpolicy.org, April 10, 2023. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/latin-america-caribbean-immigration-shift.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Plan International. “Surge in Violence against Girls and Women in Latin America and Caribbean - World.” ReliefWeb, May 19, 2020. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/surge-violence-against-girls-and-women-latin-america-and-caribbean.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Kumar, Nikhil. “The Machismo Paradox: Latin America’s Struggles with Feminism and Patriarchy.” Brown Political Review, May 1, 2014. https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2014/04/the-machismo-paradox-latin-americas-struggles-with-feminism-and-patriarchy/.

[6] News, A. B. C. “Terror of Gang Violence Drives Migrant Caravans Northward.” ABC News, November 21, 2018. https://abcnews.go.com/international/terror-gang-violence-drives-migrant-caravans-northward/story?id=59341147.

[7] Reid, Kathryn. “Venezuela Crisis: Facts, FAQs, and How to Help.” World Vision, May 16, 2019. https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/venezuela-crisis-facts.

[8] News, A. B. C. “Terror of Gang Violence Drives Migrant Caravans Northward.” ABC News, November 21, 2018. https://abcnews.go.com/international/terror-gang-violence-drives-migrant-caravans-northward/story?id=59341147.

[9] European Commission. “What Is Gender-Based Violence?” commission.europa.eu, 2022. https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/gender-based-violence/what-gender-based-violence_en#:~:text=gender%2Dbased%20violence-.

[10] Ibid.

[11] IMISCOE. “Summary Paper Written for the EU Network on International Migration, Integration and Social Cohesion (IMISCOE) and COMPAS Transit, Migration and Politics Trends and Constructions on the Fringes of Europe,” n.d. https://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/ER-2008-Transit_Migration_Trends_Fringes_IMISCOE.pdf.

[12] Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights. “Situation of Migrants in Transit,” n.d. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2021-12/INT_CMW_INF_7940_E.pdf.

[13] Khan, Carrie. “The Surge in Single Women with Children at the U.S.-Mexico Border.” NPR.org, June 20, 2014. https://www.npr.org/2014/06/20/323844514/single-women-with-young-children-inundate-u-s-mexico-border.

[14] www.iadb.org. “Latin American and Caribbean Women: Better Educated, Lower Paid | IADB,” October 15, 2012. https://www.iadb.org/en/news/latin-american-and-caribbean-women-better-educated-lower-paid#:~:text=When%20comparing%20men%20and%20women.

[15] Women, UN. “How Migration Is a Gender Equality Issue.” interactive.unwomen.org, 2020. https://interactive.unwomen.org/multimedia/explainer/migration/en/index.html.

[16] Arora, Anshana. “Uncertain Pathways: How Gender Shapes the Experiences of Children on the Move.” UNICEF DATA, August 27, 2021. https://data.unicef.org/resources/uncertain-pathways-how-gender-shapes-the-experiences-of-children-on-the-move/.

[17] KERF, MICHEL, MANUEL CONTRERAS-URBINA, ANA I. AGUILERa, ERIKA PADRON, and CARLOS XAVIER MUÑOZ BURGOS. “Migrant Women and Girls in Central America Risk Their Lives in Search of a Better Future.” blogs.worldbank.org, June 6, 2023. https://blogs.worldbank.org/latinamerica/migrant-women-girls-search-better-future-central-america.

[18] Ibid.

[19] Garsd, Jasmine. “Migrants Are Showing up at the U.S. Southern Border in Historic Numbers. Here’s Why.” NPR, November 12, 2023. https://www.npr.org/2023/11/12/1212058889/migrants-u-s-southern-border-historic-numbers-why.

[20] Ibid.

[21] Lacuna, and Lisa Lopez Smith. “The Migrant Trail: Crossing the Mexico-US Border across Trump’s Proposed Wall | Lacuna.” Lacuna Magazine, November 22, 2017. https://lacuna.org.uk/migration/migrant-trail-walking-mexico-us-across-trump-border-wall/.

[22] Women's Refugee Commission. “Title 42 and Asylum Processing at the US-Mexico Border: A Primer.” Accessed December 1, 2023. https://www.womensrefugeecommission.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Title-42-Asylum-Processing-US-Mexico-Border-Primer_072021.pdf.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Allyn, Richard. “Migrant Women and Children given Precedence Processing at Border.” cbs8.com, May 8, 2023. https://www.cbs8.com/article/news/investigations/beyond-the-border/migrant-women-and-children-given-precedence-at-border/509-63036a36-fb2f-4957-9ac6-7e5afb7cef72.

[25] Ugarte, Marisa B., Melissa Farley, and Laura Zarate. “Prostitution and Trafficking of Women and Children from Mexico to the United States.” Journal of Trauma Practice 2, no. 3/4 (2003): 147–65.

[26] Milman, Oliver. “The Climate Crisis Is Killing Migrants Trying to Cross the US Border, Study Finds.” The Guardian, December 16, 2021, sec. World news. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/16/climate-crisis-sonoran-desert-killing-migrants-cross-us-border#:~:text=Migrants%20and%20asylum%20seekers%20trying.

[27] Center for Women's Justice. “Daisy’s Law’: New Research Commissioned by Centre for Women’s Justice Demonstrates Why Children Born from Rape Should Be Recognised as ‘Victims’ in Law.” Centre for Women’s Justice, August 15, 2022. https://www.centreforwomensjustice.org.uk/news/2022/8/15/daisys-law-new-research-commissioned-by-centre-for-womens-justice-demonstrates-why-children-born-from-rape-should-be-recognised-as-victims-in-law.

[28] Wolf, Jessica. “Dying in the Desert: How U.S. Border Policies Contribute to Migrant Mortality.” UCLA, December 17, 2021. https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/how-dehydration-leads-to-migrant-deaths-in-desert.

[29] Roy, Diana. “Crossing the Darien Gap: Migrants Risk Death on the Journey to the U.S.” Council on Foreign Relations, June 22, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/article/crossing-darien-gap-migrants-risk-death-journey-us.

[30]  Roy, Diana. “Crossing the Darien Gap: Migrants Risk Death on the Journey to the U.S.” Council on Foreign Relations, June 22, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/article/crossing-darien-gap-migrants-risk-death-journey-us.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Human Rights Watch. “Americas: Migrants Pushed to Cross Darién Gap, Abused | Human Rights Watch.” Human Rights Watch, November 9, 2023. https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/09/americas-migrants-pushed-cross-darien-gap-abused#:~:text=Venezuelans%2C%20Haitians%2C%20and%20Ecuadorians%2C.

[33] Roy, Diana. “Crossing the Darien Gap: Migrants Risk Death on the Journey to the U.S.” Council on Foreign Relations, June 22, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/article/crossing-darien-gap-migrants-risk-death-journey-us.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Ilona Barrero. “The Dangers of Being a Female Migrant in the Darién Gap.” Institut du Genre en Géopolitique, June 19, 2023. https://igg-geo.org/en/?p=13307&lang=en.

[36] Panchenko, Sofya, Philippe Mayaud, Sebastian Baranyi Nicholls, Carolina López González, Khatherine Michelle Ordáz, Madeline Baird, and Amanda Gabster. “‘You Are the First Person to Ask Me How I’m Doing Sexually’: Sexual and Reproductive Health Needs and Sexual Behaviours among Migrant People in Transit through Panama.” Frontiers in Reproductive Health 5 (July 10, 2023). https://doi.org/10.3389/frph.2023.1157622.

[37] Journal, Kejal Vyas | Photographs by Tarina Rodriguez for The Wall Street. “Rapes of U.S.-Bound Migrants Make a Treacherous Route Even More Dangerous.” Wall Street Journal, September 6, 2021, sec. World. https://www.wsj.com/articles/rapes-of-u-s-bound-migrants-make-a-treacherous-route-even-more-dangerous-11630956539.

[38] Ibid.

[39] Ilona Barrero. “The Dangers of Being a Female Migrant in the Darién Gap.” Institut du Genre en Géopolitique, June 19, 2023. https://igg-geo.org/en/?p=13307&lang=en.

[40] Panchenko, Sofya, Philippe Mayaud, Sebastian Baranyi Nicholls, Carolina López González, Khatherine Michelle Ordáz, Madeline Baird, and Amanda Gabster. “‘You Are the First Person to Ask Me How I’m Doing Sexually’: Sexual and Reproductive Health Needs and Sexual Behaviours among Migrant People in Transit through Panama.” Frontiers in Reproductive Health 5 (July 10, 2023). https://doi.org/10.3389/frph.2023.1157622.

 

[41] Ibid.

 

[42] Ibid.

[43] European Commission. “What Is Gender-Based Violence?” commission.europa.eu, 2022. https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/gender-based-violence/what-gender-based-violence_en#:~:text=gender%2Dbased%20violence-.

[44]  Levinson, Amanda. “Unaccompanied Immigrant Children: A Growing Phenomenon with Few Easy Solutions.” Migration Policy Institute, January 24AD. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/unaccompanied-immigrant-children-growing-phenomenon-few-easy-solutions#:~:text=Since%20many%20boys%20begin%20working,than%20girls%20to%20migrate%20alone.