Refugee Women
By BaoChau Le
“There is possibly no one more vulnerable than the refugee woman. Every means of her support gone- her livelihood, the home she built, her dowry, her flock of goats or sheep, the well she dug, her household gods and shrine, and so are the garden and the crops that she tended. Her extended family, very often her husband and male relatives – disappeared into the maw of civil war, fled ahead of her, hauled away by security police or the militia. She does not whether or not she is a widow, what happened to her family’s savings, whether her parents are still alive – or even what prayers to say.” (Valji 2023)
The excerpt above describes the experience of 50 million globally displaced women, who represent over half of the displaced population. (Freedman 2016) The number of women seeking refuge has increased drastically over the last decades. In 2009, the UNHCR estimated that 43.4 million people were displaced globally, 49% of them being women and young girls. (Global Trends 2009, UNHCR) The 2022 report estimated that the total number of displaced people had increased to 108.4 million, with over 52% of the displaced people being women and young girls. (Global Trends 2022, UNHCR) In thirteen years, the number of women who have been forcibly removed from their homes and exposed to violence has increased by nearly 30 million. Unfortunately, this number is predicted to increase and many of them will continue to seek safety in refugee camps domestically or abroad.
Women often face unique challenges and vulnerabilities due to their displacement. As they are forced out of their homes and must navigate hostile environments, they face an increased risk of gender-based violence, such as sexual exploitation and assault. If they can reach a refugee camp, their struggles do not end. Women have been turned away from camps because they are viewed as cumbersome, not self-sufficient, and a burden to provide for. (Valji 2023) Due to the power imbalance between humanitarian aid workers and women refugees, many refugees must engage in transactional sex to gain access to vital resources such as food, water, and shelter. The involvement of transactional sex in refugee camps is a critical security issue. It exacerbates the power abuse inside refugee camps, heightens women’s vulnerability to gender-based violence, and imprison women to the cycle of instability and conflict.
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The Gendered Experience of a Refugee Woman
The gendered experience of a refugee woman starts before she even enters the camp. Often women arrive at camp having already experienced sexual assault and exploitation. Unfortunately, these are grounds to be denied entry to many refugee camps and this practice is not confined to one specific region, because it can deemed as voluntary prostitution work.(Freedman 2016) As documented by the UNHCR, Amnesty International, and Women at Risk Program women who immigration officials from Australia, Thailand, and Hong Kong who have interviewed potential refugees denied them of their residency because they had experienced ‘only rape.’ (U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees, "Guidelines on Protection of Refugee Women") 8 of the interviewed officials had stated that ‘only women who are facing extreme dangers should be considered, and rape was not an extreme danger.’ (Pittaway and Bartolomei 2001; Hendricks 2023) 1 in 5 of women refugee experience sexual assault (“Women for Women International,” 2023), and with over 50 million women refugee worldwide, this means that thousands of women are denied refuge due to their assaults. The disregard for the traumatic experienced by refugee women not only denies them of a safe sanctuary but sets a precedent where rape and sexual assault is viewed a norm and creates systematic discrimination against women who have become increasingly vulnerable in conflicted regions. To secure women’s safety in conflict regions and refugee camps, humanitarian officials and aid agencies must acknowledge how rape is sued to instill fear, control, and destabilize communities and the threat that it poses to women and their security.
Transactional Sex as a Refugee Woman
Once inside, the conditions of these camps are less than desirable. Many of them are in rural areas, isolated from the general population. Camps also vary in size and resources. In many of these camps, communities continue to practice the patriarchal traditions that they held before displacement, resulting in resources being distributed to the male leaders of the community. This isolate out women-led families, who might not be able to access the same resources. Unfortunately, refugee camps constantly face a shortage of essential resources such as food, clean water, clothes, and hygiene products. During these shortages, it is also women-led families and communities that endure the effects the most. (Ferris 2007; H. Williams 1990; Bulley 2014)
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1: An aerial view of Dadaab Camp in Kenya, one of the world's largest refugee camps. (Reuters)
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Not only do women-led households and young girls feel the effects of resource scarcity the most, but even with substantial resources, they are still in a vulnerable position. Food, water, and money in the camps are solely distributed by humanitarian workers, creating a power imbalance between refugees and the workers, where workers can exploit refugees and their survival needs. Girls and women often are offered access to food and medicine in exchange for sex. (Hutchinson et al. 2016) In such a dire state, many view transactional sex as the only way to obtain life-sustaining resources. A report conducted by the UNHCR in Liberia in 2002 revealed that ‘sexual exploitation was not only widespread, it was also perpetrated by aid workers, peacekeepers, and community leaders.’ (Ferris 2007) Transactional sex had become the norm this Liberian refugee camp and continues to globally. Interviews, assault reports, and STI testing conducted by the UNHCR and NGOs revealed that transactional sex is prevalent in almost all host nations. From the largest refugee camp, Cox’s Bazaar in Bangladesh, to largest host-country Turkey, the largest African refugee camp, Dadaab in Kenya, and smaller camps throughout Uganda, Rwanda, and Ghana – all have documented transactional sex.
In sub-Saharan African refugee camps such as those in Uganda, Rwanda, and Ghana, most girls engage in transactional sex with for access to resources such as food and little money. (Logie et al. 2021; Ganle et al. 2019; Erhardt-Ohren and Lewinger 2020) In more established camps such as Dadaab and Cox’s Bazaar, transactional sex is more formalized, is seen as a means of employment, or is conducted through sex trafficking rings[BL1] . (UNHCR, " HIV Behavioural Surveillance Survey in Dadaab Refugee Camps, Kenya, 2010; Safeworld, "Doing Right by Women and Girls in Cox's Bazar: Gendering Perspectives on Social Cohesion", 2021) Lastly, in countries where most of the refugee population is Muslim (Turkey) there is little evidence of transactional sex. However, there is strong prevalence of early marriages with 22 percent of the Syrian refugee population being married under 15. (ECPAT International, "Syrian Refugees in Turkey Particularly at Risk of Sexual Exploitation") This evidence demonstrates that, globally, refugee women and young girls are heightened to being disadvantaged and exploited due to their displacement, especially in refugee camps. Whether it is at the hands of humanitarian workers, out of desperation for their families, or a means to protect themselves, refugee women are constantly entering dangerous relationships to stay alive.
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Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare for Refugee Women
Women refugees are more susceptible to transactional sexual relationships where they are less able to negotiate safe sex. Therefore, there is an increased in unintended pregnancies, STIs, and a strong demand for comprehensive reproductive care. Unfortunately, the care that you receive is strongly correlated to the status of your refugee camp. Presented below are the conditions and quality of healthcare in the world’s largest refugee settlement, Cox’s Bazar, versus smaller camps in Uganda, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
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Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Cox’s Bazar is the largest refugee settlement in the world, with over 840,000 refugee living within its district. (Sultana et al. 2020) Most of the population are the Rohingya people, and over 51 percent of them are women and young girls.
Figure 2: An aerial view of Cox's Bazaar where over 700,000 refugees resides. (Aid and International Development Forum)
A case study conducted by the Danish government analyzed the availability of reproductive health resources and provider attitudes at Cox’s Bazaar. Their findings indicated that clinics offered comprehensive reproductive car such as family planning, abortion procedures, and post-abortion care ( PAC[taw2] ). Furthermore, 8 out of the 12 clinics in the region also provide maternal health services for those who intended to carry their pregnancy to full-term. Interviews and focus discussion groups with the refugees found that they are satisfied with the services and care that they receive. They cite that ‘waits at the clinics are not too long, doctors try their best to help you, and community educational programs aid in women understanding their family planning options. (Women's Refugee Commission, "Contraceptive Service Delivery in the Refugee Camps of Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh", 2019) The research group also surveyed and interviewed the medical providers. Many of the providers believed that all women are entitled to abortion, PAC, maternal services, and family planning regardless of their marital status. (Women's Refugee Commission, "Contraceptive Service Delivery in the Refugee Camps of Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh", 2019) (Erhardt-Ohren and Lewinger 2020) In both figure 1 and 2, we see that as communities become available of the healthcare services offered, more women seek them out. Access to safe and non-judgmental services becomes a catalyst for increased utilization in these communities. The conditions at Cox’s Bazar have yielded lower infant mortality rates, lessened maternal health complications, (Women's Refugee Commission, "Contraceptive Service Delivery in the Refugee Camps of Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh", 2019) and also sets a standard for how to integrate the unique needs of refugee women into the healthcare system.
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Figure 3 & 4: As modern contraceptives became more widely available in Cox's Bazaar, more refugees are seeking them out. The increase in women seeking contraceptives mean that they can have safe sexual relationships. (Women’s Refugee Commission, 2019)
Uganda, Sierra Leone, and The DRC
Most camps are not as formalized and established as Cox’s Bazar. Approximately 100 million refugees live in smaller, rural camps that are isolated from the nearest town and its resources. Over 50 percent of this population are women and young girls, which leaves 50 million women vulnerable to inadequate reproductive healthcare. (Global Trends 2022, UNHCR) They are not able to access contraceptives, maternal care, and safe abortion procedures. Furthermore, social stigmas against transactional sex, contraceptives, and abortion make it much more difficult for women to obtain these resources. In smaller camps across Uganda, Sierra Leone, and the DRC, abortion is widely regarded as ‘immoral’. (Erhardt-Ohren and Lewinger 2020; Sesay 2004) Therefore, these services are not offered around the camp, leaving women and young girls to either seek a self-induced abortion or carrying their pregnancy to full-term. The United Nations Populations Fund estimated that 25-50 percent of maternal deaths are a result of abortion complications, usually from self-induced abortions. (Krause, Jones, and Purdin 2000)
In Sierra Leone, few refugee women are knowledgeable on family planning services and camps do not have contraceptives due to its stigma. Abortion is also illegal in the nation, so anyone who is undergoing unintended pregnancies must seek ‘underground abortion procedures’ or conduct a self-induced one. (“Slow Steps of Progress: The Reproductive Health Rights of Refugee Women in Africa” 2023)As a result, more than 10 percent of the maternal deaths in Sierra Leone is due to unsafe abortions. (Mitchell "Teen Pregnancy in Sierra Leone: Why We Need to Involve Men") However, this statistic is only recorded by official hospitals; women who suffer through unsafe abortions and do not seek medical attention are not reported. Therefore, the number of maternal deaths due to unsafe abortions could be much higher. At the Mugunga camp in the DRC, home to nearly 4,000 women and girls, unintended pregnancies and self-induced abortion is also common. 155 refugees participated in a family planning survey. Of those 155 refugees, 21 percent sought an induced abortion and 61 percent performed a self-induced abortion. (Kisindja, 2017) Lastly, in Uganda abortion is legally restricted and offered to those who have been raped or suffering severe complications. However, Congolese refugees have reported provider bias in Uganda. Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) found that women who seek abortion underwent immense pain, received no PAC, believed that they were being punished by providers for seeking an abortion, and feared that providers would alert community members of their abortion. (Erhardt-Ohren and Lewinger 2020)
Challenges to Ending Sexual Exploitation
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In refugee camps, social hierarchies and community support have been disrupted. Parents, who traditionally provide for the families, cannot find employment to support their families. Therefore, ‘Parents [also] pressured their children to enter sexually exploitative relationships in order to secure items for the families.’ (Erhardt-Ohren and Lewinger 2020). Dismal conditions of the camps force parents, who inherently are safeguards for the children, to discard their role and marry their daughters off into transactional marriage as a ‘protective strategy.’ (Hutchinson et al. 2016; T. P. Williams, Chopra, and Chikanya 2018) The intention is that their husbands will provide for them, they are less likely to have multiple sexual partners, and the parents have one less child to provide for. Daughters, who are often young and lack any means of support, are trapped into exploitative relationships that can turn dangerous and abusive. This is a practice common amongst Sri Lankan and Sierra Leonne camps, where two-thirds of married girls are under 18, and Turkish camps where nearly 22 percent are married under 15.
The disruption of social infrastructures extends to educational opportunities, adding on another level of disadvantage for women. Globally, over 30 million refugee children are not enrolled or do not have access to education. (EFA Global Monitoring Report Team 2014) More than half of these refugees are young girls. When education is offered, the conditions are poor with students not having the necessary supplies and inexperienced teachers. In Cox’s Bazar and Dadaab, students crowd together in a tent with at least 80 other students, huddled around tattered textbooks and shared school supplies. (Wright and Plasterer 2012)
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 4: A typical classroom inside of the Dadaab Camp. Classrooms are typically overcrowded, with students sitting on floors and sharing educational materials. (ONE Campaign)
However, a study conducted across Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and in Europe found that female refugee students are 3 times more likely to be being taken out of school to care for their families. (EFA Global Monitoring Report Team 2014) Over 90 percent of girls in conflict areas or refugee camps had been taken out of school or had their education postponed. Parents need their daughters to watch over their siblings, tend to the home, and perform low-earning jobs to provide what they can for the family.
Without the safeguard of social infrastructures such as community support and education, women are trapped the toxic cycle of exploitation and dependency. The transactional relationships that they engage in makes them dependent on their exploiters – financially and physically. Adding another complex layer to that dependency is young girls and women not being able to continue their education. This furthers entraps them because they are not able to learn skills that would allow them to find employment and financial freedom. The toxic cycle continues and it affects generations of women and young girls.
Consequences of Neglecting the Gendered Refugee Experience
The experience of a refugee woman is defined by heightened vulnerabilities to gender-based violence, inadequate and dangerous healthcare services, and lack of opportunities. The shortage of research in women and security have resulted in the international community overlooking the plight of refugee women. Resulting in aid agencies and host governments not recognizing and incorporating the unique needs of women refugees into their camps and systems. The Sahrawi, a women established camp, is an example of how dismissal of women’s needs could endanger the progress and well-being of its community. In the late 1970s, the Polisario Front found itself seeking refuge in Algeria. With many of its men fighting and opposing Moroccan occupation, the women of the Front found themselves in charge of the camp’s establishment. During the time, the UN and the UNHCR declared that this camp was a ‘beacon of hope.’(Rosen and Twamley 2023) It was anticipated that this women-led camp would become a true safe space for women refugee, a demonstration of empowerment, and provide hope for those who were still experience violent conflicts. Decades later, interviews and researchers have pointed out that the Sahrawi camps did not achieve that and did the opposite. As the political conflict died down, the Polisario men returned to camp and assumed their positions as head of the communities. Consequently, the gendered power-imbalance led to high rates of child marriages, young girl’s unenrollment from school, and sexual violence and slavery. Researchers found that young girls were not allowed to gather publicly, often unenrolled in school to care for their families, and not allowed to interact with male peers. (Finden 2018; Rosen and Twamley 2023)The UNHCR and Humans Rights Watch have also released extensive findings on child marriages, sexual violence and slavery being practiced in the camps. (Human Rights Watch 2014) What was once deemed to be a potential haven for women, is now their worst nightmare.
Conclusion
With much advocacy, there has been a steady increase in researching the complex relationship of gender and security. Aid agencies have recognized the unique experiences that women and young girls must endure throughout conflict and displacement. From violence in the conflicted regions to violence within camp confides, the experience of a refugee woman is often marred. Inadequate amounts of food, water, and heightened women’s vulnerabilities to being sexually exploited. Lack of comprehensive education, healthcare, and communal support continues to entrap women in these exploitative relationships. The Sahrawi camps demonstrated that a women-established was not enough to protect women and young girls. The needs and safeguards that refugee women specifically require must be ingrained into the camp. Comprehensive reproductive healthcare, education, and employment opportunities are the leading tools of empowerment and safety for women. If we want to gurantee the safety of refugee women, the most vulnerable population, then policymakers, aid agencies, and host governments must recognize the needs of refugee women and ensure that they are met.
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